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The ancient Egyptians had a complex set of beliefs and traditions surrounding death and what came next, and integral to their preparations for this critical transition was the Book of the Dead. This was not a typical book in the modern sense, but rather a collection of ritual instructions and incantations known as the ‘Spells of Going Forth by Day’. These spells were intended to help the deceased on their journey into the afterlife and ultimately allow their spirit to join the eternal cycle of the sun god Re and Osiris, the god of the netherworld.
The Getty Villa’s newly opened redisplay of their 2023 exhibition The Egyptian Book of the Dead offers visitors a rare opportunity to view a selection of delicate objects that can only be shown under controlled environmental conditions. Through these items, the exhibition explores how the traditions surrounding the Book of the Dead changed over more than a thousand years of Egyptian history.
Personal papyri
There are currently nearly 200 known spells that make up the Book of the Dead, but this group of writings originally emerged from a variety of sources, bringing together priestly oaths, household spells, and earlier funerary inscriptions. By the start of the New Kingdom, around 1550 BC, scribes began to record these spells in papyrus scrolls, which were placed in tombs alongside the deceased. However, they also remained part of active religious practice and had roots in a strong oral tradition. Speech was an important aspect of the Book of Dead: the spells were intended to be spoken by the deceased in the afterlife, as well as being read by priests at funerals, while others were used in temple rituals or daily life. The Book of the Dead was not a standardised, generic text: different combinations of spells were included in widely varying orders. Each scroll was handmade and personalised for the deceased, commissioned from scribal workshops by wealthy patrons in anticipation of their own death, or by their families.
The earliest example in the J. Paul Getty collection is a papyrus from c.1450 BC, during the 18th Dynasty, at the height of the New Kingdom. Most known Book of the Dead manuscripts belonged to men, but this one was owned by a woman called Webennesre. Unfortunately, we do not know much more about her, but the text does include a unique section where she requests her own plot ‘of ten acres’ in the Field of Reeds, where food is grown for the gods and the akh spirits. First, though, she must face a series of trials. Among the texts featured, the papyrus includes Spell 149, which lists a series of mounds that the deceased has to traverse in the afterlife, each with its own divine guardian, while Spell 150 offers an illustration of these hills. These spells provided Webennesre with knowledge that was crucial to navigating this stage of her journey.
Two other papyri on display belonged to women called Ankhesenaset and Aset, both ritual singers and priestesses of the god Amun in the Karnak temple complex in Thebes. These manuscripts date to between 1069 and 900 BC and reflect a changing fashion in this region at the time, as preferences shifted towards shorter versions without illustrations. As is characteristic for Books of the Dead from this context, both scrolls feature a group of spells concerned with retaining essential faculties in the afterlife, such as Spell 23, which opens the deceased’s mouth, allowing them to breathe, speak, eat, and drink.
For tasks that the deceased did not want to carry out themselves, ushabtis were the answer. These figurines could be animated in the afterlife by reciting Spell 6, inscribed on their body, and would then perform labour on behalf of the person with whom they were buried. The example on display comes from the tomb of a man named Neferibresaneith at Saqqara, and is holding agricultural tools, making it clear what its function is to be in the afterlife.
Sacred wrappings
In later periods, from c.400-100 BC, a new tradition emerged. Scribes began writing Book of the Dead spells on thin strips of fabric, which were wrapped around the mummified body itself, as an alternative or complement to papyrus scrolls. In this way, the spells were placed in direct contact with the deceased, literally enveloping and protecting them.
One man who favoured this approach was Petosiris, son of Tetosiris, who lived around 100 BC. Unfortunately, the linen bandages wrapped around his body were removed and cut into pieces by antiquarians in the 1800s; today, at least 20 separate sections are known to be spread across museums around the world, including six in the Getty’s collections (of which are two on display). Despite the wrappings’ fragmented nature, an array of spells and vignettes can be identified. Spell 15 features prominently: a series of hymns to the sun god, accompanied by numerous illustrations. Among the images are scenes showing two female figures representing the eastern and western horizon; Petosiris kneeling on a solar boat in front of three forms of the sun god, symbolising different stages of the solar cycle; and an image of Re rising between two ba-birds (human-headed birds representing spirits of the dead) and four baboons (an animal thought to have a special connection to Re because of their habit of vocalising while basking in sunlight).
Book of the Dead papyri continued to be produced during this period, as well. The Papyrus of Pasherashakhet (375-275 BC) also features hymns to the sun like Spell 15, accompanied by similar illustrations. Elsewhere, the papyrus depicts the climactic point of the deceased’s journey: Spell 125 addresses the moment when Pasherashakhet must appear before Osiris and swear his innocence of a set of 42 crimes, before his heart is weighed against the feather of Maat. If the heart is equal to the weight of the feather, he may proceed to the next world. Pasherashakhet passes the test and as he enters into the company of the gods Osiris greets him, ‘Welcome, welcome in peace to the beautiful West’.
The path to the afterlife was fraught with challenges, and the Book of the Dead was an essential guide to avoiding these pitfalls. These intricate, often colourfully decorated texts – whether on papyrus, linen strips, or other objects – represented an ancient Egyptian’s best chance at a peaceful eternity… at least for those who could afford it.
DETAILS:
The Egyptian Book of the Dead
Address: Getty Villa Museum, Los Angeles, USA
Open: until 30 November 2026
Website: www.getty.edu/exhibitions/book-of-the-dead
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