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The lararium, or household shrine, was a staple of most Roman homes. Ranging from lavishly decorated spaces to small niches or simple painted altars, these were places where the house’s inhabitants would worship and make offerings to domestic deities including the lares (guardians of the house and land), the genius of the paterfamilias (the guardian spirit of the male head of the family), and the penates (protectors of the household). Around 570 lararia have been discovered in Pompeii, often decorated with images of these figures and containing ritual objects connected to sacrificial offerings.
Both ancient written records and depictions in art refer to the burning of aromatic substances like frankincense, as well as different plants and herbs, as offerings to the household gods, who were said to have been pleased by these scents. Examples of incense burners have been found across the Roman world, and in recent years some have even contained material suitable for microscopic study, but little successful scientific analysis has been carried out of the burnt residues inside these vessels – until now.
A tale of two censers
A recent study, published in Antiquity (https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2026.10320), has investigated two incense burners discovered at Pompeii in the 20th century, which still contain ash residue suitable for testing, to find out more about the offerings burnt inside them.
The first of the censers is a goblet-like terracotta cup with a shallow bowl and a conical foot; it is a type commonly found in the Vesuvian cities, as well as in Dacia and the north-western Roman provinces. The cup was discovered in 1954 in the Officina di Sabbatino, a domestic residence that was in the process of being converted into an inn at the time of Vesuvius’ eruption in AD 79. The authors note that it is not uncommon to find domestic sacrifices at construction sites in Pompeii. The second vessel studied is a round bowl decorated with three female appliqués: a reclining woman flanked by two busts. The reclining figure is believed to depict a deceased individual, who is being venerated after death. Examples of similar vessels are known from Pompeii and Campania. This object was found in 1986 in the domestic shrine of a villa rustica in Boscoreale, a rural suburb located at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, alongside votive objects including a marble statuette of a reclining woman, a silver plaque, and several other vessels. Both incense burners have been dated to the Early Imperial period (mid- 1st century BC to mid-1st century AD), and the contexts in which they were found makes it clear that these vessels were associated with religious rituals at lararia.
In order to analyse their contents, the researchers took samples from near the rim and in the centre of each vessel – the material extracted was minimal, so as to maintain the objects’ original appearance, and was taken not from the surface but a slightly deeper layer to avoid contamination. The samples were then subjected to three types of scientific investigation. The first was organic residue analysis: looking at biomolecular components coming from plant and animal materials. This technique is most commonly used to study lipids, but can also identify plant products like resins and fragrance oils. Next, they looked at calcite-based ash micro-remains, as study of the ash residue can reveal what types of plants or wood were burnt. Finally, they examined the phytoliths in the samples; these are silica particles from plant cells that can survive decomposition or burning, making it possible to identify the plants that were once present.
Burnt offerings
The results revealed that woody plants had been burnt in both vessels. These may reflect the use of charcoal or other fuel, but could also represent plant offerings or the incense itself. The species most likely represented include oak, laurel, and mulberry or other stone-fruit plants, as well as several grasses and shrubs. Some of these plants may have been imported, but it appears that most grew locally.
It seems that the second incense burner held a grape product, too, probably wine or vinegar, as well as resin from a plant of the Burseraceae family (also known as ‘the frankincense and myrrh family’), most likely from the Canarium genus. The burning of wine and incense in domestic sacrifices is referenced by Roman authors and hinted at in images like the painting in the lararium of the Casa dei Vettii in Pompeii, which shows the lares on either side of a genius holding a libation bowl and an open incense box. However, this is the first physical evidence for the practice.
Interestingly, the Burseraceae resin in the burner from Boscoreale is believed to be not Boswellia resin (‘true frankincense’) – which comes from the southern Arabian Peninsula or East Africa, and was the type used most commonly in the Roman Empire – but a Canarium resin also known as elemi, which probably originated in the rainforests of sub-Saharan Africa or Asia, most likely in India. This finding provides further tangible evidence for the trade networks stretching from Pompeii to far beyond the borders of the Roman Empire. When considered in conjunction with other finds like the Indian statuette of Lakshmi found at the Casa della Statuetta Indiana, a picture emerges of fragrant resins from distant lands being traded alongside goods from India and sub-Saharan Africa, travelling north across the Red Sea, before being shipped through Alexandria to Italy, where they became part of people’s daily domestic lives.
Once again, the unique preservation conditions at Pompeii offer an invaluable opportunity to enrich our understanding of the ancient world. The analysis of the Burseraceae resin tells us about Pompeii’s global connections, while the discovery of wine and incense in vessels from lararia represents an important archaeological addition to written and visual sources about sacrificial practices and daily religious life in the world of Imperial Rome.
Text: Amy Brunskill
