The revolutionary struggles that convulsed France from 1789 broke the fossilised class system that denied advancement to soldiers not born into the aristocracy. For the first time, the sons of humble innkeepers, ostlers, and coopers could become generals in their 20s, and, in some cases, end their careers as dukes and princes.
There were plenty of chances for ambitious young men to prove their battlefield skills, for from 1792 to Napoleon’s final downfall in 1815, France was almost permanently at war with her neighbours. But the revolution was a two-edged sword. While offering opportunities for glory, the close intertwining of politics with military matters meant the fate of commanders depended as much on the changing political scene in Paris as on their fortunes in the field.
Four leading French generals of the era switched sides during the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars for political and personal reasons, and found themselves fighting against their countrymen. Were they traitors and turncoats, or simply patriotic heroes wrong-footed by seismic political shifts?
